yamnaya invasion of europe
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , 2020; 201920051 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1920051117 Cite This Page : [Online] Available at: https://www.ling.upenn.edu/~rnoyer/courses/51/Ling512011MaterialCulture.pdfTarlach, G. 2018. Ancient Origins 2013 - 2023Disclaimer- Terms of Publication - Privacy Policy & Cookies - Advertising Policy -Submissions - We Give Back - Contact us. It is unlikely, however, that this was part of an organized invasion. Their conclusions, based on an analysis of human skeletal remains found in Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania, were published on Friday in the journal Science Advances. These animals can sniff it out. To save time and preserve delicate remains, the graves were removed from the ground in wooden crates, soil and all, and stored in a warehouse for later analysis. About 45,000 years ago, those first modern humans ventured into Europe, having made their way up through the Middle East. Den var vervgande nomadisk, men i . According to paleogenetic data, it is the result of a mixture of ethnic groups, carriers of the R1b and J haplogroups . More mobility would have allowed for less time for the development of large multi-family communities such as clans. He has participated in an archaeological field school and archaeological excavations in Greece and San Diego. Primary Image: Soldiers coming ashore at Normandy on D-Day. Finally, 5000 to 4800 years ago, nomadic herders known as the Yamnaya swept into Europe. The term Yamnaya comes from the Russian expression Yamnaya Kultura which means pit culture. All rights reserved. Yamnaya culture, also known as Yamna, drove out, almost all the population of locals in Spain about 5000 years ago. These mostly nomadic people brought forth a plethora of advancements to Europe, including metalworking, horseback riding, and the application of wheels. Insights from Central Asian herders and ancient DNA", "DNA data explosion lights up the Bronze Age", "Massive Migrations? The Yamnaya culture is identified with the late Proto-Indo-Europeans, and the Pontic-Caspian steppe is the strongest candidate for the Urheimat (original homeland) of the Proto-Indo-European language. . [Online] Available at: https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2017/02/thousands-horsemen-may-have-swept-bronze-age-europe-transforming-local-populationJuras, A, et al. The Celtic . the first having spread proto-Indo-European . This is why they had words for agricultural things but also spread out and took over Europe as well as parts of Asia. Yamnaya culture tomb. This map seems logical. Though it was disputed for many years, there is conclusive evidence that Neanderthals bred with modern humans (Homo sapiens). Europeans living today, in whatever country, are a varying mix of ancient bloodlines hailing from Africa, the Middle East, and the Russian steppe. The study also noted that ancient south Asian samples had significantly higher Steppe_MLBA than Steppe_EMBA (or Yamnaya). But Greek is an Indo-European language, and the oldest evidence of writing in Europe . The Yamnaya culture or the Yamna culture (Russian: , Ukrainian: lit. Farther north, from Russia to the Rhine, a new culture sprang up, called Corded Ware after its pottery, which was decorated by pressing string into wet clay. There were also other humans, but not like us: Neanderthals, whose own ancestors had wandered out of Africa hundreds of thousands of years earlier, had already adapted to the cold and harsh conditions. Mitochondrial genomes reveal an east to west cline of steppe ancestry in Corded Ware populations . Vucedol was already indo-European before this Yamnaya invasion, they were warlike, burried in kurgans, had a completely different culture than the neolithic Balkanians, etc. Yamnaya Corded Ware. Black-headedmen coming North. They were an early Bronze Age culture that came from the grasslands, or steppes, of modern-day Russia and Ukraine, bringing with them metallurgy and animal herding skills and, possibly, Proto-Indo-European, the mysterious ancestral tongue from which all of today's 400 Indo-European languages spring. AtAncient Origins, we believe that one of the most important fields of knowledge we can pursue as human beings is our beginnings. In 3,000 BC, nomadic pastoralists from the steppes of Eurasia replaced and interbred with the Neolithic farmers who had settled Europe about 4,000 years earlier. In one grave, neatly contained in a wooden crate on the concrete floor of the warehouse, a woman and child are buried together. The evidence comes from archaeological artifacts, from the analysis of ancient teeth and bones, and from linguistics. With 306 references, six greyscaled and coloured images, and miniature images within the table of 130 representative finds, including new finds in Germany and Western China. [63], According to David W. Anthony, the genetic evidence suggests that the leading clans of the Yamnaya were of EHG (Eastern European hunter-gatherer) and WHG (Western European hunter-gatherer) paternal origin[64] and implies that the Indo-European languages were the result of "a dominant language spoken by EHGs that absorbed Caucasus-like elements in phonology, morphology, and lexicon. As the cost of sequencing DNA has plummeted, scientists at labs like this one in Jena, Germany, have been able to unravel patterns of past human migration. The speakers of Proto-Indo-European were part of what archaeologists and linguists call Proto-Indo-European (PIE) culture. was spoken on the Ukrainian steppes by the Corded Ware people: [69][70], Autosomal tests also indicate that the Yamnaya are the vector for "Ancient North Eurasian" admixture into Europe. In seven of the samples, alongside the human DNA, geneticists found the DNA of an early form of Yersinia pestisthe plague microbe that killed roughly half of all Europeans in the 14th century. It was confirmed in 2015, when two research groups independently discovered that Indo-European men shared a Y-DNA haplogroup that is called R1a. First, a group of hunter-gatherers arrived in Europe about 37,000 years ago. In the caves where they sheltered, they left behind spectacular paintings and engravings of their prey. Yamnaya people were pastoralists who relied on herding sheep, goats, and cattle. [5] In these groups, several aspects of the Yamnaya culture are present. Beginning in 2014, Baird sent samples of DNA extracted from skull fragments and teeth from more than a dozen burials to DNA labs in Sweden, Turkey, the U.K., and Germany. The genetic information is startlingly complete: Everything from hair and eye color to the inability to digest milk can be determined from a thousandth of an ounce of bone or tooth. Keep in mind that the Yamnaya intermixed with people, not kill them all off. (2015), autosomal tests indicate that the Yamnaya people were the result of a genetic admixture between two different hunter-gatherer populations: distinctive "Eastern Hunter-Gatherers" (EHG), from Eastern Europe, with high affinity to the Mal'taBuret' culture or other, closely related people from Siberia[6] and a population of "Caucasus hunter-gatherers" (CHG) who probably arrived from the Caucasus[39][3] or Iran. I have had a theory for a number of years about the success of the IE (now Yamnaya) people in populating the world. The Yamnaya originated from Eurasia, and before they migrated into Europe, the people of Neolithic Europe were said to be a communal and innovative society. This suggests that both may have been the result of actual migrations of people. Abstract: Recent genetic studies have claimed to reveal a massive migration of the bearers of the Yamnaya culture (Pit-grave Continue reading . Researchers believe they have found the earliest evidence of horseback riding, by the ancient Yamnaya people in Europe some 5,000 years ago. The Yamnaya culture or the Yamna culture (Russian: , Ukrainian: lit. Back migration from Corded Ware also contributed to Sintashta and Andronovo. It is possible that the reason for this migration was to found colonies that were politically and culturally aligned with the homeland to expand their culture and their family holdings to new lands. Lets see the DNA analysis on hair and eyecolor (very easy today) of the respective regions, over time, from pre-Roman to now. The site of Lepenski Vir, nearby in Serbia, was a haven for fishing hunter-gatherersuntil farmers took over around 6000 B.C. Archaeologists and linguists have long debated the origins of the Indo-European language family as well as the origins of civilization and settled life in Europe. For millennia, they made little impact. The research team, led by David Reich of Harvard Medical School, discovered that the DNA of the Yamnaya, 5,000-year-old steppe herders in western Russia, was a close match for 4,500-year-old . [15] The Khvalynsk culture (47003800 BC)[16] (middle Volga) and the Don-based Repin culture (c. 39503300 BC)[17] in the eastern Pontic-Caspian steppe, and the closely related Sredny Stog culture (c. 45003500 BC) in the western Pontic-Caspian steppe, preceded the Yamnaya culture (33002500 BC).[18][19]. Well, not at least in its pure form. Within a few centuries, other people with a significant amount of Yamnaya DNA had spread as far as the British Isles. [66], Haak et al. Thegoal of Ancient Origins is to highlight recent archaeological discoveries, peer-reviewed academic research and evidence, as well as offering alternative viewpoints and explanations of science, archaeology, mythology, religion and history around the globe. Their DNA is still prevalent, especially in southern Baltic countries. People of Europe were in trade contact with the people of the Middle East and the Eurasian steppes and they adopted the technology and lifeways of more technologically advanced outsiders. Series Minor 43. Live Science. [40][d] According to Narasimhan et al. Weak verbs in Germanic frequently derived from nouns by '-i/j-' (cf PIE suffix '-ei/i-', denominative), '-ian/jan' in the infinitive. One way to cross-check the possible correlation between genetics and linguistics that might connect the Yamnaya and the Indo-European languages is to look at the archaeology of the Yamnaya and see if it fits with what would be predicted of PIE culture. Reconstruction of a Yamnaya person from the Caspian steppe in Russia about 5,000-4,800 BC. The Yamnayans had migrated from the Pontic-Caspian steppes to find greener pastures in todays countries of Romania and Bulgaria up to. "It looks like males migrating in war, with horses and wagons," says lead author and population geneticist Mattias Jakobsson of Uppsala University in Sweden. He noted that many other tribes disliked widow remarriage. A National Geographic team has made the first ascent of the remote Mount Michael, looking for a lava lake in the volcanos crater. Im sure theres a big database of grave finds, but youd have to verify the datingit tends to be dubious. The map shows that the 'Yamnaya' genetic component is hardly Yamnaya in origin; rather it is a more ancient component originating in the populations of northern Europe from whence it spread both . This group of islands is one of the most remote in the world and its population is one of the most isolated. The steppe nomads apparently had lived with the disease for centuries, perhaps building up immunity or resistancemuch as the Europeans who colonized the Americas carried smallpox without succumbing to it wholesale. If they adopted farming from the local non-Indo-European cultures, we would expect words related to agriculture to be foreign loanwords, and not in the original Proto-Indo-European lexicon. All are thought to have evolved from a single proto-Indo-European tongue, and the question of where it was spoken and by whom has been debated since the 19th century. Such a skewed ratio raises red flags for some researchers, who warn it is notoriously difficult to estimate the ratio of men to women accurately in ancient populations. (XVodolazx/ CC BY-SA 3.0 ). It is likely, based on our analysis, that the population that contributed genetic material to South Asia was (roughly) ~60% Yamnaya, ~30% European farmer-like ancestry, and ~10% Central Steppe hunter-gatherer ancestry. The earlier migration of farmers from Anatolia is beyond the scope of this article, but recent research suggests that the dawn of Bronze Age Europe was due to the expansion of the Yamnaya culture. In the process any notion of European genetic purity has been swept away on a tide of powdered bone. Today, Yamnaya related ancestry is lower in southern Europe and higher in northern Europe, and all European populations can be modelled as a three-way mixture of WHG, Early Neolithic, and. Because of this, it is not unreasonable to suggest that the Yamnaya men coming into the region were mostly warriors. Standing on it now, he peels back a tarp to reveal whats underneath: a rectangular chamber containing the skeleton of a chieftain, lying on his back with his knees bent. Instead, their DNA contained distinctive genes that were new to Europe at the timebut are detectable now in just about every modern European population. Are the Misty Peaks of the Azores Remnants of the Legendary Atlantis? Kurgan cultures, which include the Yamnaya, buried their dead in graves that were covered by dirt mounds. Excavations at the 10,300-year-old site of Boncuklu in Turkey have revealed that people were living there during the transition to farming. Unauthorized use is prohibited. The spatiotemporal spread of human migrations during the European Holocene. There are no indigenous peopleanyone who hearkens back to racial purity is confronted with the meaninglessness of the concept.. But genetic evidence, Reich and others say, shows that many Corded Ware people were, to a large extent, their descendants. They had settled from Bulgaria all the way to Ireland, often in complex villages that housed hundreds or even thousands of people. The Iliad can provide new insights on the role of motherhood among the ancient Greek gods, and by extension, amongst ancient mortal Greek women themselves. In the first century CE, Roman historian Tacitus observed that in a Germanic tribe (descended from the Yamnaya), 'the wife refused to survive her husband, but killed herself in order to be burnt on the same funeral pyre as him'. If a plague wiped out Europes Neolithic farmers, it left little trace. [47] Some individuals are believed to have carried a mutation to the KITLG gene associated with blond hair, as several individuals with Steppe ancestry are later found to carry this mutation. Wodarczaks mound near abalj is the westernmost Yamnaya grave found so far. It has long been clear that Europe acquired the practice of farming from Turkey or the Levant, but did it acquire farmers from the same places? "[65] It has also been suggested that the PIE language evolved through trade interactions in the circum-Pontic area in the 4th millennium BCE, mediated by the Yamna predecessors in the North Pontic steppe. Three major movements of people, it now seems clear, shaped the course of European prehistory. On what are now the steppes of southern Russia and eastern Ukraine, a group of nomads called the Yamnaya, some of the first people in the world to ride horses, had mastered the wheel and were building wagons and following herds of cattle across the grasslands. Early Bronze Age men from the vast grasslands of the Eurasian steppe swept into Europe on horseback about 5000 years agoand may have left most women behind. It also has words for wheat and barley. When construction of Stonehenge began about 3000 B.C., Britain was inhabited by Neolithic farmers. In one view, this change is related to trade networks that existed across Eurasia. Dyeus PaterThe Original All-Father of the Gods . Klejn has also suggested that the autosomal evidence does not support a Yamnaya migration, arguing that Western Steppe Herder ancestry in both contemporary and Bronze Age samples is lowest around the Danube in Hungary, near the western limits of the Yamnaya culture, and highest in Northern Europe, which Klejn argues is the opposite of what would be expected if the geneticists' hypothesis is correct. 2023 American Association for the Advancement of Science. DNA extracted from the skulls of people buried here has helped researchers trace the spread of early farmers into Europe. [Online] Available at: https://www.ancient-origins.net/myths-legends-asia/dyeus-pater-0011264Welsh, J. about Could Tuvalus History Stretch Back 8000 Years? [68] Studies that analysed ancient human remains in Ireland and Portugal support the thesis that R-M269 was introduced in these places along with autosomal DNA from the Eastern European steppes. Refresh. Corded Ware burials are so recognizable, archaeologists rarely need to bother with radiocarbon dating. at least from 6500BC is indigenous to the region, and the first advanced human culture! For more than a decade Baird has been excavating a prehistoric village here called Boncuklu. 6) What difference, according to your study, did it make to the Indus Valley Civilisation gene pool ? Before the arrival of the Yamnaya, European tombs were large and communal and appear to have belonged to more than one family. Theres less stuff, less material, less people, less sites, Krause says. [43][44], People of the Yamnaya culture are believed to have had mostly brown eye colour, light to intermediate skin, and brown hair colour, with some variation. Thousands of horsemen may have swept into Bronze Age Europe, transforming the local population. Figure 5. Scientists have tracked the spread of viruses in human populations. The State Museum of Prehistory in Halle, Germany, has dozens of Corded Ware graves, including many that were hastily rescued by archaeologists before construction crews went to work. Answer (1 of 3): According to both major articles on Yamnaya genetics (see below) the contribution of the steppe population to Southern Europe was far less significant than to Northern Europe. Another theory, proposed a century ago by a German scholar named Gustaf Kossinna, held that the proto-Indo-Europeans were an ancient race of north Germansthe people who made Corded Ware pots and axes. The second group being the Neolithic or early European farmers (EEF). Dr. Heggarty noted that the studies showed the arrival of Yamnaya in Central Europe about 4,500 years ago. Recent studies over the years have revealed that most central and northern Europeans, as well as some groups in central Asia, are descended from the Yamnaya. A widely cited theory holds that the early spread of herders across Eurasia was facilitated by. The last major contributors to western and central Europes genetic makeupthe last of the first Europeans, so to speakarrived from the Russian steppe as Stonehenge was being built, nearly 5,000 years ago. Some kurgans contained "stratified sequences of graves". Old cells hang around as we age, doing damage to the body. [76], Bronze daggers, arrowheads and bone artefacts, "Yamna culture" redirects here. Over millennia, migrating humans have used the Danube River, seen here at a narrow gorge between Serbia and Romania, as a highway from the Fertile Crescent into the heart of Europe. This makes sense since these recent findings would suggest that the Germanic people and the Celts were their descendants. Your tax-deductible contribution plays a critical role in sustaining this effort. He is especially interested in classical Greek history and Read More. The same study estimated a (38.850.4%) ancestral contribution of the Yamnaya in the DNA of modern Central, and Northern Europeans, and an 18.532.6% contribution in modern Southern Europeans; this contribution is found to a lesser extent in Sardinians (2.47.1%) and Sicilians (5.911.6%). This group included people similar to that of Corded Ware, Srubnaya, Petrovka, and Sintashta. Eco-friendly burial alternatives, explained. These skeletons may have the answer, Scientists are making advancements in birth controlfor men, Blood cleaning? They lived here almost 2,000 years, until farmers pushed them out.. Long-lost Native American Fort of the Norwalk Discovered in Connecticut, Garden of the Gods: Sacred Ground and Native American Crossroads. First, in documenting the spread of the Yamnaya and their descendants deeper and deeper into Europe at just the right time, the DNA evidence supports the favored theory among linguists: that proto-Indo-Europeans migrated into Europe from the Russian steppe, not the other way around. It has long nourished white racism, and in recent years it has stoked fears about the impact of immigrants: fears that have threatened to rip apart the European Union and roiled politics in the United States. Please be respectful of copyright. [Online] Available at: https://www.livescience.com/19924-agriculture-move-north-europe.html, Caleb Strom has a bachelor's degree in earth science and a minor in anthropological archaeology. Defying every anthropology course, people were not having sex with each other. Fear of the other has a long history. The result has been an explosion of new information that is transforming archaeology. [49][50] It has been hypothesized that an allele associated with lactase persistence (conferring lactose tolerance into adulthood) was brought to Europe from the steppe by Yamnaya-related migrations. This ratio can reveal the proportion of men and women in an ancestral population, because women carry two X chromosomes, whereas men have only one. Scientists just confirmed a 30-foot void first detected inside the monument years ago. It would have taken weeks or months for prehistoric humans to build each one. It is also true that, sometimes, nomadic pastoralists are warlike as innumerable examples in history show. Now in terms of their origins, the Yamna (also known as Pit Grave) culture hailed from what is now modern-day Russia and Ukraine. Indo-European migrations according to theKurgan hypothesis. But when the researchers looked at the DNA later Europeans inherited from the Yamnaya, they found that Bronze Age Europeans had far less Yamnaya DNA on their X than on their other chromosomes. By Michael Marshall. Recent research by Haak et al. [21] Earlier continuity from eneolithic but largely hunter-gatherer Samara culture and influences from the more agricultural DnieperDonets II are apparent. These regions west of the Black Sea constitute a contact zone where mobile groups of herdsmen from the Yamnaya culture first encountered the long-established farmer communities of Late Neolithic and Chalcolithic traditions. This would make their purpose similar to the Greek and Roman colonies established across the Mediterranean. The Impact of Recent DNA Studies on our View of Third Millennium Europe", "Human Genetics: Lactase Persistence in a Battlefield", "DNA Deciphers Roots of Modern Europeans", "Long-distance exchanges along the Black Sea coast in the Eneolithic and the steppe genetic ancestry problem", "Population genomics of Bronze Age Eurasia", "Archaeology and Language: Why Archaeologists Care About the Indo-European Problem", "Archaeology, Genetics, and Language in the Steppes: A Comment on Bomhard", "Neolithic and Bronze Age migration to Ireland and establishment of the insular Atlantic genome", "The genetics of an early Neolithic pastoralist from the Zagros, Iran", "Massive migration from the steppe was a source for Indo-European languages in Europe", "The genetic history of admixture across inner Eurasia languages in Europe", "Upper Palaeolithic genomes reveal deep roots of modern Eurasians", "The Neolithic transition in the Baltic was not driven by admixture with early European farmers", "Ancient human genomes suggest three ancestral populations for present-day Europeans", "Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East", "A genetic probe into the ancient and medieval history of Southern Europe and West Asia", "The population genomics of archaeological transition in west Iberia: Investigation of ancient substructure using imputation and haplotype-based methods", "The Genomic History of Southeastern Europe", "Chronology and Periodization of the Pit-Grave Culture in the Area Between the Volga and Ural Rivers Based on 14C Dating and Paleopedological Research", "The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia", "Ancient DNA steps into the language debate", "The Genetic Ancestry of Modern Indus Valley Populations from Northwest India", "Ancestry and demography and descendants of Iron Age nomads of the Eurasian Steppe", "Ancient human genome-wide data from a 3000-year interval in the Caucasus corresponds with eco-geographic regions Eurasia", "Direct evidence for positive selection of skin, hair, and eye pigmentation in Europeans during the last 5,000y", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, "Genetic study revives debate on origin and expansion of Indo-European Languages", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yamnaya_culture&oldid=1142716438, This page was last edited on 4 March 2023, at 00:24. Long COVID patients turn to unproven treatments, Why evenings can be harder on people with dementia, This disease often goes under-diagnosedunless youre white, This sacred site could be Georgias first national park, See glow-in-the-dark mushrooms in Brazils other rainforest, 9 things to know about Holi, Indias most colorful festival, Anyone can discover a fossil on this beach. The Kurgan cultures are thought to represent not just one migration, but many, of which the Yamnaya may have been the first. How European Farmers Spread Agriculture Across Continent . But DNA evidence from Boncuklu has helped show that migration had a lot more to do with it. It has even been suggested that European women may have found Yamnaya men more desirable for marriage because of their prowess as warriors and their superior technology. There has been a remarkable discovery in Connecticut in the United States that could change the way that we view Native North American Society. [28], Characteristic for the culture are the burials in pit graves under kurgans (tumuli), often accompanied with animal offerings. Alternatively, the fact that there are original PIE words for domestic barley and wheat suggests that Proto-Indo-European speakers, whoever they were, were already familiar with farming when they became a distinct linguistic group. Not to be confused with the, The Eastern European hunter-gatherers were themselves mostly descended from ancient North Eurasians, related to the palaeolithic, Yamnayan cultural aspects, for example, were horse-riding, burial styles, and to some extent the, Lazaridis et al. The ancient DNA study also challenges the idea that as the Yamnaya moved east around 5,000 years ago, they brought Indo-European languages with them deep into Asia. In the ensuing millennia, they developed more sophisticated stone tools and settled in small villages. Throughout the history of civilization, the concept of the apocalypse has been ever present, in one way or another. Volker Heyd, an archaeologist at the University of Helsinki, Finland, estimates there were as many as seven million people in Europe in 3000 B.C. What is wind chill, and how does it affect your body? What if we could clean them out? Impressions from the reed mats and wood beams that formed the roof of his tomb are still clear in the dark, hard-packed earth. Finland has one of the highest Yamnaya contributions in all of Europe (50.4%). Yamnaya people dominated Europe from between 5,000 and 4,000 years ago They had nutritionally rich diets and were tall, muscular and skilled horse riders It is believed they exploited a. It makes sense that agricultural civilizations would have a dim view of these nomadic raiders and paint them in a negative light. One major source of contention over the origins of the precursor to modern European cultures is over whether they involved the movement of actual people or merely the exchange of ideas. (Image: National Archives and Records Administration, 111-SC-320902.) After a 500-year gap, the population seemed to grow again, but something was very different. Chambers, J. ( katiekk2 / Adobe stock) The study found there was no sudden admixture of the pre-existing groups and those from the Pontic-Steppe. 28. The new year once started in Marchhere's why, Jimmy Carter on the greatest challenges of the 21st century, This ancient Greek warship ruled the Mediterranean, How cosmic rays helped find a tunnel in Egypt's Great Pyramid, Who first rode horses? For the most part, they stayed separate.. (A) from Grasgruber et al. The horsemanship the Yamnaya brought to Europe lives on in their native region. Horses were domesticated some time before 3,000 BC in central Asia. [14], According to Mallory (1999), "The origin of the Yamnaya culture is still a topic of debate," with proposals for its origins pointing to both Khvalynsk and Sredny Stog. Heres the technology that helped scientists find itand what it may have been used for. Many of the samples were too badly degraded after spending millennia in the heat of the Konya Plain to yield much DNA. The earthen burial mounds belonged to the Yamnaya culture. The domestication of the horse would have given nomadic groups more mobility allowing them to go greater distances. If we've learned anything from the COVID-19 pandemic, it's that we cannot wait for a crisis to respond. The person buried here under the floor of a home likely would have farmed small plots of domesticated wheat, and may have herded goats and sheep, while continuing to forage. In Britain, Neolithic people were constructing Stonehenge. and, following the Gallic invasion of the Balkans in 279 BCE, as far east as central Anatolia .
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