ekpe society cameroon
[8] The bulk of the Efik can be found in Calabar. In the Song of Ocol, Lawino's husband gives his side, arguing that: Ocol throws Lawino out of his house because: Ocol says that "__________________________ are chains around the neck, chains of slavery". One of the most important castes in this society is the jeli caste. At Ughoton, to the southwest of Benin, a different type of mask is used, in the cult. Members of the Ekpe society are said to act as messengers of the ancestors ( ikan ). They use a variety of masks to execute social control. I was very poorno job and I has no money to even feed and take care of myfamily I was confuse in life I dont know what to do I try allmy possible best to get money but no one work out for meeach day I share tears, I was just looking out my family nomoney to take care of them until one day I decided to jointhe great Illuminati , I come across them in the internet Inever believe I said let me try I email them.all what theysaid we happen in my life just started it was like a dream tome they really change my story totally . [52] The missionaries respected the native law but the European Captains acted rashly and desired that an example be set on Obutong. What is a Free Agent "A free agent is one who isn't privileged with even one pure Leopard spiritline from the survivors of the Great Attempt. [77] Women wore a number of brass rings on their legs and arms. Each grade has a chieftain or an Obong. [49] Several events at Creek town later led to a wave of migration from Creek town to Duke town. The doomsday cult is a sinister transnational cult that has paved its way from the west and Asian world into some African countries including Uganda and South Africa. the Ekpe society. James Beale Horton made a similar assertion in 1868 where he asserted that all the communities of the Niger-delta are traced to the Igbo. Due to the volume of cultural exchange, many other ethnic groups have often been regarded as being one with the Efik such as Kiong and Efut. Formerly the society earned a bad reputation due to what the British viewed as the barbarous customs that were intermingled with its rites. A list of some of Africa's most prominent cults and secret societies of all time. An account from the Qua said the origin of the Ekpe people can be traced to Cameron. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). [69] The society is divided into five main grades such as Nkanda, Oku akama, Nyamkpe, Okpoho and Ebonko. Sunjata's sister, Kolonkan, angers her younger brother Manding Bori when she: uses her powers to take the internal organs from animals he and his brothers killed, without cutting the animals open. La communaut cubaine Abakudescendante des communauts fik Ekp et Ejagham gb du Sud Est du Nigria et du Sud Ouest du Camerouna t fonde la Havane dans les annes 1830 par des leaders capturs des villages de Cross River. clothing stores in columbia mall The version of Sunjata we have read is not the only version because: No version was ever written down by a skilled jeli, since Mande traditional society considers any story written down to be "dead". [52] The breach of agreement to halt such practices was punished by blowing Ekpe on Obutong and forbidding funeral rites of the chief until the murderers were brought to justice. Several accounts have been given on the migration from Creek town to Obutong. [33][34] Abasi is said to have borrowed an axe from an Uruan woman and had broken the axe. [5] The Efik refer to themselves as Efik Eburutu, Ifa Ibom, Eburutu and Iboku. [19], The Ibibio origin of the Efik is one of the most popular among scholars. And it's a symbol in both. Ethnographic - (Head crest, Ejagham People): Worn by a member of the Ekpe Society to intimidate and punish anyone who has broken tribal law. [6] The most popular historical accounts of Efik migration attest a movement from Ibom in Arochukwu to Uruan and from Uruan to numerous settlements along the lower Cross river. Her behavior at the board meeting was obsequious\mathit{obsequious}obsequious; for example, she actually offered to wash the company president's car! The society is somewhat akin to a free mason group and does some unofficial law enforcement. Among the earliest proponents of the Ibibio origin theory are Consul Hutchinson who stated, "The present inhabitants of Duke town, Old town and Creek town are descendants of the Egbo shary or Ibibio tribe up the Cross River. kp lodges ruled local communities while also managing regional and long-distance trade. It is a male-only society, and members are bound by secrecy. Prior to the introduction of industrialised cubic-shaped seasonings such as maggi and know, Crayfish was used to make meals more spicy. [41] Latham hypothesizes that the Efik may have arrived before the middle of the seventeenth century. The Efik language was also spoken in several communities in Western Cameroon. She or he is a random of nature, a result of mixed up and confused spiritual genetics. Resume: La communaure cubaine Abakua-descendantedes communautes :EB:k Ekpe et Ejagham ~gbedu Sud Est du Nigeria etdu Sud Ouest du Cameroun-a ete fondee ala Havane dans les annees 1830 par des leaders captures des villages de Cross River. Prior to 1905, Old Calabar was a term used to describe the Efik settlements of Duke Town, Creek Town, Old town, Cobham town, Henshaw town, Adiabo and Mbiabo (consisting of Mbiabo edere, Mbiabo Ikot Offiong and Mbiabo Ikoneto). Only males can join, boys being initiated about the age of puberty. Instead, each settlement had its own lodge of the initiation society called kp, or "leopard," which was the highest indigenous authority. This exhibition, on view from April 18 to August 2, was organized by the Hood Museum of Art, Dartmouth College, and generously supported by the William B. Jaffe and Evelyn A. [51] The Enwang people who were fishing at Duke town saw the twins approaching and fled in terror saying "Mbiomo oduk ine"(English: A curse has befalling our fishing sites). The origins of these symbols date way before colonization, but, from my understanding, the use of these symbols died out as the influence of Ekpe secret society lessened. Originally, items such as onions (Oyim mbakara) was rare in Efik meals. Imbued with transcendental aura, ukara conveys the sacrality and prestige of the Ekpe secret society. The dress is often worn with ornaments such as necklaces and earrings made of coral beads. [69] The Ekpe spirit cannot be seen by the uninitiated and is represented by Idem Iquo, a masquerade dressed in Esk, a multicoloured costume decorated with other traditional accoutrements. [32] Aye argues that the Efik could not have taken the royal emblem of the Uruan people as they would have already had their own royal emblem. The Leopard Society was allegedly a cannibalistic society in the early-to-mid 2oth century in Sierra Leone, Libera and Cte dIvoire. One-word searches work best.Use AND to require multiple terms: LEFT Small ukara with minute patterned design and Omu Aro symbol. National Museum of African American History and Culture. Although used exclusively by members of Ekpe, ukara is produced by a sub-group in a village of the Ezillo community in present-day Ebonyi State in the Igbo area in southeastern Nigeria. Speaking at the ceremony, the head of Ekpe of Afap village, Seseku Daniel Laluh said with Prof Ayuk's commitment in the village, the Ekpe society thought it necessary to confer him the Seseku. Barbot documents that between 1698 and 1699, payments for provisions were made at Calabar to the following chiefs; Duke Aphrom, King Robin, Mettinon, King Ebrero, King John, King Oyo, William King Agbisherea, Robin King Agbisherea, and Old King Robin. [32] At night when everyone had gone to sleep, the men from Uruan rose up and began to slaughter their hosts. Law and order in Efik society was maintained via a number of secret societies. The Ekpe society had become, by the time Antera Duke began his diary in 1785, the Efik's primary socio-political institution. Some other clothings introduced into the market include smit, brutanya, isadh and nkisi. ________. Within Nigeria, the Efik can be found in the present-day Cross River State and Akwa Ibom state. Why do you think it is important for us to understand our past? Mr. . [38] It is believed that it was at Ndodoghi that many of the Abayen clan had died from crocodile attacks. After the decline of the slave trade, the Efik transitioned into the business of exporting palm oil from the Cross river. "[18] References to the Igbo origin of the Efik were also made at the Hart's enquiry into the Obongship dispute where Etubom Efiom Obo Effanga asserted that the term "Iboku" meant quarrelsome Igbos. [47] At the time of their exit from Creek town, the reigning monarch of Creek town was their half brother Oku Atai Atai Ema Atai. The earliest proponent of the Igbo origin was William Baikie who stated in his 1856 publication, "All the coast dialects from One to Old Kalabar, are, either directly or indirectly, connected with Igbo, which later Dr Latham informs me is certainly related to the Kafir class". A delegation of kp 'leopard' society initiates, as well as family members, traveled from Mamfe, Manyu Division of southwest Cameroon, to Yaound, the Cameroon capital to honor and reclaim the body of their leader and father, who had recently transited to the ancestors. That is why Sisiku Ojong Orock after consultation with the other Ekpe members and Sisiku Mfonten Mbu decided to acquire his own Nkanda Lodge in April 2003. [79] Ikpaya a royal type of gown also made from raffia. The Efik people speak the Efik language, which is a BenueCongo language of the Cross River family. Ukara cloth also consecrates the interior of Ekpe lodges, where larger versions of the cloth hang as backdrops. The Efik speak the Efik language which is a member of the Benue -Congo subfamily of the Niger - Congo language group. Collection of Eli Bentor. [47] On the founding of Obutong, Colonial anthropologist M.D.W. An entire topic will be dedicated to discussing the Ekpe society and its legacy in the near future. When the threads are cut, the nsibidi designs stand out, white against a deep blue background. As a child, Sunjata at first looks unpromising because: In one of the most dramatic episodes in the Sunjata Epic, Sunjata first begins to demonstrate his extraordinary abilities when he: avenges an insult to his mother by uprooting a tree and placing it in front of her house. Proponents of this theory range from missionaries, explorers, colonial anthropologists and later historians. Ekpe cult, the leopard cult, and a male masquerade cult of the Efik, in cross river state of Nigeria, followed by Doomsday cult (prediction of total destruction of planet earth), then the. Sunjata's aunt, Tenenba Conde, childless herself, must raise the child Fakoli, son of Kosiya Kante, after Kosiya sacrifices herself for her brother's sake. It is not just because of its spiritual or cultic functions but for the fact that the institution was a pre-colonial police judiciary system (Bassey, 1998). [67] Communities within the Calabar metropolis such as Efut, Kiong and Qua also speak and understand the Efik language. You been do very proper for we, and now we want to keep proper mouth. The Osirica is a black Egyptian masonic order that existed in ancient Egypt. Sunjata's half-brother, Dankaran Touman, enrages Sunjata and nearly causes civil war by: murdering an innocent young man, thinking he is Sunjata. The images, ideology, and secrecy associated with kp have been studied for more than one hundred years, and yet crucial features of the history of kp and its transformation have been neglected. Jeffreys states that a disruption among the Okobo around the town of Ekeya in the Eket district led to the founding of Obutong. There are several theories regarding the origin of the Efik people. Group members would disguise themselves as leopards, wearing leopard skins, carrying claw-like weapons, and attacking their prey. The main proponents of what is described as "Palestinean origin" is Eyo Okon Akak who wrote the book, "The Palestine origin of the Efik". The term "Calabar people" was particularly popular prior to the nineteenth century and was synonymous to the Efik.[6]. No disrespect allowed. Contribute to chinapedia/wikipedia.en development by creating an account on GitHub. Jeffreys also stated, "There is reason to believe that a considerable portion of a small Ibibio clan called Ebrutu or Eburutu was the earliest stock of the Efik; for, when the missionaries settled in 1846 at Old Calabar amongst these people for the first time, it was found that they called themselves not Efik but Ebrutu or Ebrutu Efik. (Multiple Deaths at Ndodoghi creek, Ema Atai Ema Atai, Priest-king, lost his sight in death). [11] The bulk of the Enwang and Usukakpa are located in the present-day Akwa Ibom state. [32] The men were wet and complained of hunger and fatigue. Aye, Originally Ekpe Fraternity was for religious purposes, but as the Calabar community became complicated owing to the new wealth which the early trade with Europeans brought it was. Known generally as Ekpe, Egbo, Ngbe, or Ugbe among the multi-lingual groups in the region, these closed groups all used the leopard as a symbol of masculine prowess in war and political authority in their various communities. In the culture we have discussed, the term jamu refers to: each person's family name, which connects the person to a famous character in the story of Sunjata. LEFT Omabe Eze sewing an ukara, Ezillo, southeastern Nigeria. the exhibition explores the long- According to Parker, When there, Dick Ebro' asking him to go to war with him, he complied, and accordingly having sitted out and armed the canoes, they went up the river, lying under the bushes in the day when they came near a village; and at night flying up to the village, and taking hold of every one they could see. Only males can join, boys being initiated about the age of puberty. Here are 8 prominent cults and secret societies in Africa. With the inception of the transatlantic slave trade, a number of foreign clothes were introduced into Efik society. Infact; there can be no-gainsay of the USAK-EDET People (ISANGELE) being the originators of this highly acclaimed Ekpe Society that the EFIKS, led by EFFA EFFIWAT later on used in subduing their subjects of EFUTS, (i.e. This material is believed to have been imported by the Portuguese (Oboriki). nineteenth centuries, no large kingdoms controlled Nigeria and Cameroon's multilingual Cross River basin. These artists sew the white cloths with raffia thread so that parts of the ukara (in a pattern of nsibidi symbols) will not be exposed during the dyeing process. [9][38] The Adiabo group is believed to have left to their present location after the Mbiabo exodus. a king whose attempts to have a special son lead him to make bargains with one Islamic missionary and two noble travelers. The earliest accounts are narrated in the second half of the 19th century by Explorers and missionaries. Eye of the Needle - Ken Follett 2015-07-07 The worldwide phenomenon from the bestselling author of The Pillars of the Earth, World NSUWorks - Nova Southeastern University Institutional Repository Membership in the Ekpe (Egbo), or Leopard, society, for example, available to wealthy men who can meet the expense involved, confers high social status and political authority; these men participate in ceremonies concerned with ancestral spirits and are believed to protect the community through magic and religious ritual. Internal details about the membership and brotherhood demands of this ancient group is supposedly a top secret known only to the members. [39] At Ndodoghi, the Efik priest-king Ema Atai Ema Atai died and was succeeded by his son Eyo Ema Atai Ema Atai Iboku. [76] Uffp (native gin) is distilled from palm wine and is sometimes mixed with the bark of Edat to increase the alcoholic content. [53] Aphrom was a corruption of Ephraim which was an anglicised form of the Efik name Efiom. Hope Waddell, Samuel Edgerley and four others. [17] Some oral accounts by early Efik men also support the Igbo origin of the Efik. Okoho Efiom bore the twins at Nsutana and raised them up for years. [52] These atrocities angered the missionaries and European captains alike. [48] Jeffreys theory is unpopular with a large majority of the Efik. It became a truly multi-group society, finding its' way to almost all groups in the region and gaining dominance in . The Neegee is a cannibalistic group that feeds on human flesh to satisfy their God, and to gain power from that God. Ekpe members request nsibidi designs of personal or communal significance. [11] The last three clans had greatly dwindled in number and many of their members are believed to have been miscegenated into other Efik clans. The cloth is traditionally used as either a wrapper, worn by high- ranking members of Ekpe group who often . [32] Another theory states that there was a disagreement between an Efik woman known as Abasi and an Uruan woman. [10] The original seven clans are scattered between Cross River state and Akwa Ibom state and consist of Iboku (Duke town, Henshaw town, Creek town and Cobham town), Obutong, Adiabo, Mbiabo (Mbiabo Edere, Mbiabo Ikot Offiong, Mbiabo Ikoneto), Enwang, Usukakpa and Abayen. Ekpe Society 1st Conclave from Sept 16 to 17 2009, Ekpe DC Sessekou relaxing during the conclave, Ekpe Society members with Justice Hilman Egbe at a MECA DC meeting. [47], By the seventeenth century, more Efik settlements had been founded. Some of the musical instruments that are important in the culture we have discussed are: the bala (balaphon), a kind of xylophone, and the kora, a gourd harp. In The River Between, Waiyaki's father, Chege, is: The new, white man's religion is represented by the: Early in the story, Waiyaki undergoes his "second birth". This is evident in a testimony by Isaac Parker, a ship-keeper who lived at Duke town in 1765 for 5 months. The Efik are an ethnic group located primarily in southern Nigeria, and western Cameroon. [12], The Efik were noted for their involvement in the slave trade were they acted as slave traders and middlemen between the inland slave traders and the Europeans. This theory asserts that the Efik migrated from Palestine or somewhere close to Palestine. Aye and Eyo Okon Akak. Eli Bentor, Professor of Art History at Appalachian State University, Boone, North Carolina, speaks about the history of ukara cloth and moderates a discussi. Bell of King Eyo Honesty II at Creek Town, Ekeng ita (also known as James Henshaw), Obong of Henshaw Town (c.a 1875). Covering, concealing, and protecting their bodies, it functions as a physical metaphor for the ideological secrecy that the Ekpe society carefully constructs and guards. They are well respected agents of wealth distribution in the community.. Aye in 2000 does not mention the Efut as being the primary occupants. In this light, the Cameroon National Council of Traditional Rulers would be a welcomed . What I want for dollar side is a fine coat and sword all same I tell you and the rest in copper rods. [69] On the appending of the Ekpe institution to its list of secret societies, the Ekpe society was reformed and adapted to suit the needs of the Efik people. The Efik acted as the middlemen between the European vessels and the inland slave traders. The Ekpe society requires that its initiates sponsor feasts for the town, which foster the appearance of the redistribution of wealth by providing the poor with food and drink. [72] Here is a list of some of Africa's most prominent cults of all time: The Ekpe is a secret society that lives mostly in Nigeria and whose members are typically law enforcers and politicians. Among these secret societies were Ekpe, Obon and Nsibidi. [45] What is most certain is that the Efik arrived Creek Town led by Edidem Eyo Ema Atai together with Oku Atai Atai Ema Atai, Ukpong Atai Atai Ema Atai, Adim Atai Atai Ema Atai, Efiom Ekpo Efiom Ekpo and several others. [22] This is further proven by Talbot who proves that other ethnicities appended the name "Eburutu" or "Oburutu" to their ethnic names. . The masquerade tradition itself is most popular in Calabar and the Oron nation of Udung-Ukko, Mbo, Urue-Offong Oruko, Okobo, as well as the Eket and Uruan local government areas in Akwa Ibom state, Nigeria, and even western Cameroon. Essentially the leopard is a sign of royalty all over Central West Africa and the Calabar zone, and it's a symbol of their political autonomy. After World War II, a movement called the _____ Movement was founded by such writers as Leopold Sedar Senghor and Leon Damas, to support using Western literary forms, while writing in African languages. On behalf of Ekpe-USA Leadership, I hereby remind every member of Ngbe who has taken the aoth that our fathers and great grand fathers took to uphold those sacred traditions and beliefs, to immediately start preparations to do what they must do to send our brother to join our ancestors. At least in the past, very large sums were paid to attain these upper levels. [61] These papers were signed by the reigning monarchs of Creek town and Duke town who were Eyo Honesty II and Eyamba V.[61] King Eyamba and King Eyo had written letters to the British requesting that they bring in teachers to teach them trade and commerce and missionaries to aid them to know more about God. The story of The River Between by Ngugi wa Thiong'o, takes place in _________________ (name of present-day country) in the mid 1800's. The three most popular theories include an Igbo origin, Ibibio origin and Palestinian origin. [70] Several meals were composed of yam such as Usu abia, Iwk abia, Afia abia, sb abia, Edifrai abia and fp abia. of Bamum, of Cameroon in his kingly attire seated on the throne with his chiefs flanked round him (Plate 2). When you see Ibibio do not give him fire(to warm himself), when he is dry he will kill you, Multiple Deaths at Ndodoghi creek, Ema Atai Ema Atai, Priest-king, lost his sight in death, Joshua Project Efik of Nigeria Ethnic People Profile, Souvenir Programme of the Coronation Service of His Royal Highness Edidem Boco Ene Mkpang Cobham V, Obong of Calabar and Paramount Ruler of the Efiks, Abridgement of the minutes of the evidence, "Souvenir programme of the Coronation of Edidem Boco Ene Mkpang Cobham V", "Cross river as a model for the evolution of Benue-Congo nominal class/concord systems", https://web.archive.org/web/20151222092842/http://sunnewsonline.com/new/pa-effiong-ukpong-aye-1918-2012/, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Efik_people&oldid=1131332439, Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles using infobox ethnic group with image parameters, Articles containing explicitly cited English-language text, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 3 January 2023, at 17:46. The Ekpe society is estimated by most foreign scholars to have been introduced into Old Calabar in the 18th century. ukara: Ritual Cloth of the Ekpe Society features the ukara cloth, a composite signifier of authority, prestige, sacrality, difference, and social mobility in the Ekpe secret society in the Cross river basin encompassing southeastern Nigeria and parts of Cameroon. The Internet has shone light on manysecret societies, rendering them not so secret. While their political authority is largely diminished today, Ekpe membership is still prestigious and the society continues to be a unifying force among the Ejagham, Igbo, Efik, Ibibio, and other cultural groups in the Cross River region. The Ekpe-men are ranked in seven or nine grades, for promotion to each of which fresh initiation ceremonies, fees and oaths are necessary.[1]. [23][24], The Oriental original is most popular among indigenous Efik historians such as E.U. And there are definitely more than 10 Ekpe members still around today. During the colonial era, The Efik language was the only language taught in schools in many parts of the present-day Cross River and Akwa Ibom state. Ethnographic - (Mask, Elephant, Cape, Chicken Feather); Elephant Mask with Chicken Feather Cape, Bekom People, Cameroon. These secret societies were used to uphold the legal decisions of the Council of Elders or of the community as a whole, they also ensured conformity in certain rituals and in social behaviour and undertook certain public works for the community (n.d.). Although Behrendt and Graham reveal that Calabar had been a major trading port since the first half of the seventeenth century, Efik historians such as Aye assert that the Efik had been trading with the Europeans since the last quarter of the 15th century. It is also used by the Igbo and Efik. (b) Analyze Cause and Effect: What events prevent their success? Ekpe society was the first tribe to come up with this design and archaeologists have found traces of this fabric even in southwestern Cameroon. The missionaries who arrived in 1846 contributed to the changes in women's attire in Efik society. Define monsoon, Sanskrit, raja, caste system, caste, Hinduism, reincarnation, karma, dharma, yoga, Buddhism, ascetic, nirvana. The Oroko (also Bareka/Batekka) are an ethnic group in Cameroon.They belong to the coastal Bantu group, widely known as Sawa, and primarily occupy the Ndian and Meme divisions of the Southwest Region of Cameroon.The people predominantly speak Oroko, English, and Cameroon Pidgin English.The Oroko are related to several ethnic groups (or tribes) in Cameroon's coastal areas, with whom they share . Alcoholic content may be increased via adding the red bark of Edat (Sacoglottis gabonensis) to the wine. (1985). The design is left to the discretion of the Ezillo creators, who are not Ekpe members and do not know the meanings of nsibidi. The tentative program is as follows: January 27th and 28th, 2012. Historians recognize the advent and rapid rise of Ekpe as a direct result of a need for a new and effective mechanism of sociopolitical control in the complex economic environment created by the Atlantic slave trade. [51] The Enwang people moved to the present site of Henshaw town.[51]. The practice and display of Ekpe masquerade have been modified. Aye dates the arrival of the Efik in Creek Town to the fourteenth century. [81] Charles Ekpo Arthur Jarvis University, Akpabuyo, Nigeria The Cross River region is a vast socio-cultural mosaic which accommodates peoples of distinct ethnic, religious, social, economic and. She said as a member of the Ekpe Society of the Efiks, she participates in the Ekpe activities. Hope Waddell, Foreign commerce soon brought Calabar affairs into such a state, that the want of a bond of union among the different families, and of a supreme authority to enforce peace and order between equals and rivals, became apparent; and the Egbo institution was adopted. [36] According to Aye, "Ikpa Ene could not carry the bulk of Iboku population, Ndodoghi had to accommodate what spilt over, and the two settlements, still under one rule, were separated by the left branch of the river which became their "inland sea". The group is a mutual aid society known for elaborate street dances and very high. The year 1841 marked the official signing of papers by Efik kings to stop the exportation of slaves from Old Calabar. Hope all is well. The designs are part of a dynamic language known as nsibidi, which uses image and gestural performance to communicate knowledge guarded by society members. It was worth every penny and made me feel like a kid again. I Am Niki Buroro Agbor Ekpe Jerome a holder of a professional Masters in Forestry and wildlife Engineering with focus on Protected Area Management, Masters of Science in Forest Governance and policies from University of Dschang and Professional Masters in Environmental Science (ESIA) university of Yaounde 1. [33] Abasi's husband insisted that the problem should be resolved by the chiefs. The Sunjata Epic is usually understood to tell the story of: the rise and fall of the seven Nubian (Kushite) kings. The Efik people occupy the basins of the Lower Cross River, down to southwestern Cameroon including Bakassi, the Calabar River and down to its streams - the Kwa River, Akpayafe (Akpa Ikang) and the Eniong Creek. and Dahomean towns, and among the tribes of Congo and the Cameroon.17 According to the same author, Ngbe, was another society influenced by the Ekoi and originally considered Egb [Ekp]. In the culture we have discussed, the term fadenya refers to: the relationship between father and child, and half siblings - requiring self-assertion, independence, innovation, and competition.